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Mary Whiton Calkins (; 30 March 1863 – 26 February 1930) was an American philosopher and psychologist. Calkins was also the first woman to become president of the American Psychological Association. ==Early life== Mary Whiton Calkins was born on March 30, 1863 in Hartford, Connecticut; she was the eldest of five children. Her parents were Wolcott and Charlotte Whiton Calkins; Mary came from a very close-knit family and it is said that her personal life revolved around them.〔Furumoto, L. (1980). Mary whiton calkins (1863-1930). Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 55-68.〕 She moved to Massachusetts in 1880 with her family to live for the rest of her life; this is also where she began her education.〔 Her family moved from Connecticut to Massachusetts because her father, who was a Presbyterian minister, got a new job there.〔Bumb, J. (n.d.). Mary whiton calkins. Retrieved from http://www2.webster.edu/~woolflm/marycalkins.html〕 Mary's father took an active role in overseeing his children's education, and when she graduated high school, he had planned her studies so that she was able to enroll in college.〔 In 1882, Calkins entered into Smith College as a sophomore.〔 She studied for the year, but in 1883 with the death of her sister she took the year off from college and studied on her own.〔 During this year, she also tutored two of her brothers and studied Greek.〔DiFebo, H. (n.d). Psyography: Mary whiton calkins. Retrieved from http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/marywhitoncalkins.html〕 She then returned to Smith College in 1884 to graduate with a concentration in classics and philosophy.〔 Upon graduation, Calkins and her family took an eighteen-month trip to Europe and Calkins was able to explore Leipzig, Italy and Greece. As a major in Greek and Classics, Calkins took advantage of the opportunities and spent several months traveling and studying modern Greek and classics.〔Furumoto, L. (1980). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930). Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 55-68.〕 When she returned to Massachusetts, her father set up an interview with the President of Wellesley College, an all women's college, for a tutoring job in the Greek department.〔 She worked as a teacher in the Greek department for three years until a professor in the Psychology department took notice of Calkins' excellent teaching and offered her a teaching position, as long as she studied psychology for a year prior to teaching.〔(【引用サイトリンク】work=4000 years of women in science )〕 Calkins accepted the opportunity and began her studies at Harvard. Calkins was born in a time when women were being given more opportunities, such as the opportunity to attend college and teach at those colleges. However, she still faced some opposition and inequality in her career. There were not many options for women looking to earn a degree in psychology. She was making the choice between the University of Michigan, Yale University, and moving to Germany to study when she decided that she would much rather stay home and study at Harvard University. Harvard, though, did not permit women to study at their institution. Her father and the president of Wellesley sent letters to Harvard requesting that she be admitted to the school. Though Harvard did not admit Calkins as a student, the school did allow her to sit in on lectures. Calkins decided to take classes at Harvard Annex (predecessor of Radcliffe College), taught by Josiah Royce.〔 Royce influenced Calkins to take regular classes through Harvard, taught by William James, with males as her peers. Harvard president Charles William Eliot was opposed to this idea of a woman learning in the same room as a man.〔 With pressure from James and Royce, along with a petition from Mary's father, Eliot allowed Calkins to study in the regular classes, with the stipulation that she was not to be a registered student.〔 While Calkins was at Harvard she studied memory and invented paired-associations tests. Through this she discovered that stimuli that were paired with other vivid stimuli would be recalled more easily. She also discovered that duration of exposure led to better recall. These findings, along with her paired-associations method would later be used by Georg Elias Müller and Edward B. Titchener without any credit given to Calkins. Calkins worked alongside Edmund Sanford of Clark University to set up the first psychology lab at Wellesley College.〔 Over the next few years, Calkins continued to excel in the field of psychology, working on more graduate work. In 1894, Calkins completed all requirements for a PhD from Harvard and Hugo Münsterberg, with whom she had worked for three years, petitioned the university to grant her this degree. Harvard refused. In 1902, Harvard instead offered Calkins a degree from the Radcliffe College, a women's institution associated with Harvard. Calkins refused this degree as she had earned a degree from Harvard, not from Radcliffe.〔 Her study on pair associates learning under Hugo Munsterberg constituted her doctoral dissertation that was published in 1896. Harvard Corporation, though, refused to approve the recommendation of the Department of Philosophy and Psychology to grant Calkins her doctoral degree.〔Furumoto, L. (1979). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) fourteenth president of the American Psychological Association. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 15, 346-356.〕 Eliot believed strongly that the two sexes should be educated separately and, although he allowed Calkins to be a “guest,” he and the rest of the board refused the grant her the degree. Calkins had completed all of the requirements for the Ph.D., including passing exams and completing a dissertation, and all of her Harvard professors had recommended her for the degree. Yet, solely due to her sex, she was denied the honor of a conferred degree.〔Furumoto, L. (1980). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930). Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 55-68〕 James was astonished and described her performance as "the most brilliant examination for the Ph.D. that we have had at Harvard." 〔Hilgard, E. R. (1987). Psychology in America: A historical survey. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.〕 With her supplemental education completed, she returned to Wellesley as an associate professor of psychology. Here she opened the first psychological lab at a women's school and began conducting experiments. Two years after her return she became a professor of psychology and philosophy. This addition allowed her to return to her lectures on the classics and Greek. Her experimental work continued throughout this time. She began to focus on the idea of the "self" and she is credited for creating "self-psychology". The discrimination she experienced due to her sex was also illustrated in earlier episodes. In her autobiography, Calkins reminisces on a date in which, as a member in the Executive Committee of the American Psychological Association, Munsterberg and his students, including Calkins, were to attend a lunch meeting of the Committee at the Harvard Union. The waiter there, though, protested the group’s entrance stating that “no woman might set foot in the main hall; nor was it possible to admit so many men, balanced solely by one woman, to the ladies’ dining-room.”〔Calkins, M. W. (1930). Mary Whiton Calkins. In C. A. Murchison & E. G. Boring (Eds.), A history of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 31-62). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.〕 Although it seems like Calkins had a constant struggle as a female in her field, she expressed in her autobiography her gratitude for the individuals that did not discriminate against her. The “friendly, comradely, and refreshingly matter-of-fact welcome” that she received from the men working in Munsterberg’s laboratory as assistants and students is described in her book with great appreciation. She also expressed her indebtedness to Munsterberg who “swung the Laboratory doors” open to her without hesitation.〔 As it can be seen in her writings, although she was very grateful for the individuals who accepted her, she did not hold resentment against those who did not. For instance, instead of expressing disdain towards the Harvard board for not accepting her application for degree, she conveyed her appreciation toward Harvard for allowing her to partake in the courses, conduct research under her professors, and work with individuals such as James, Sanford and Munsterberg.〔 In addition, when the episode with the waiter refusing her admission took place, she stated in her autobiography that “he correctly insisted against her admission.”〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Mary Whiton Calkins」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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